Phi pamphlets — Appendix: quick reference

ReferenceThe three complementizer pairs

Type	Opener	Closer	Gloss	Function
Declarative	`tha`	`tho`	DECL.COMP / DECL.COMP.CLOSE	Embeds statements (that...)
Interrogative	`pha`	`pho`	INT.COMP / INT.COMP.CLOSE	Embeds questions (whether...)
Quotative	`sha`	`sho`	QUOT.COMP / QUOT.COMP.CLOSE	Preserves exact words ("...")

ReferenceThe relativizer

Word	Gloss	Function	Closer
`whu`	REL	Introduces relative clauses	None (noun closes it)

ReferenceThe vocative

Word	Gloss	Function	Closer
`kona`	VOC	Marks direct address, outside the clause	None (extra-clausal)

ReferenceBasic structures

Declarative embedding

[Subject] tha [Embedded statement] tho [Main verb]

mia tha shia to wepu tho shelomu

1SG DECL.COMP 3SG PST go DECL.COMP.CLOSE understand

(I understand that they left.)

Interrogative embedding

[Subject] pha [Embedded question] pho [Main verb]

mia pha shia to wepu pho phaelo

1SG INT.COMP 3SG PST go INT.COMP.CLOSE feel

(I wonder whether they left.)

Quotative embedding

[Subject] sha [Quoted material] sho [Verb of speaking or receiving speech]

shia sha mia wepu sho to haolu

3SG QUOT.COMP 1SG go QUOT.COMP.CLOSE PST speak

(They said: "I am leaving.")

Relative clause

[whu CLAUSE] NOUN

whu nophi kealo miona

REL story create person

(the person who creates stories)

ReferenceKey distinctions

`tha`/`tho` vs. `sha`/`sho`

Feature	`tha`/`tho` (Declarative)	`sha`/`sho` (Quotative)
What it does	Reports content/meaning	Preserves exact words
Pronoun behavior	Shifts to reporter's perspective	Stays as originally spoken
Use when	Paraphrasing, summarizing	Exact wording matters

Example contrast: - shia tha shia wepu tho to haolu = They said that they were leaving. - shia sha mia wepu sho to haolu = They said: "I am leaving."

`pha`/`pho` vs. `wa` vs. `lu`

Word	Function	Example
`wa`	Direct question (expects answer)	`wa thia wepu` = Are you leaving?
`pha`/`pho`	Embedded question (content of wondering)	`mia pha thia wepu pho phaelo` = I wonder whether you're leaving.
`lu`	Conditional (if-then)	`lu thia wepu. mia so ma towe phaelo` = If you leave, I won't feel well.

ReferenceNesting rules

Each opener requires its own closer - Every tha needs one tho - Every pha needs one pho - Every sha needs one sho

Closers match in reverse order - Last opened = first closed - Like parentheses: ( [ ] ) not ( [ ) ]

Types close their own type - tha closes with tho (not pho or sho)

Nested example:

mia tha thia pha shia wepu pho phaelo tho shelomu

└─────────────────────────────────────────┘

└───────────────────┘

ReferenceCommon verbs with complementizers

With `tha`/`tho` (statements)

Verb	Meaning	Example translation
`sano`	know	I know that...
`nohero`	believe	I believe that...
`phaelo`	feel	I feel that...
`remo`	think	I think that...
`shelomu`	understand	I understand that...
`nila`	see (perceive)	I see that...
`hea`	hear	I hear that...
`haolu`	speak	They said that...

With `pha`/`pho` (questions)

Verb	Meaning	Example translation
`phaelo`	wonder	I wonder whether...
`thilou`	ask	They asked whether...
`sano`	know	I know whether...
`ma sano`	not know	I don't know whether...

With `sha`/`sho` (quotations)

Verb	Meaning	Example translation
`haolu`	speak	They said: "..."
`thilou`	ask	They asked: "...?"

ReferenceThe -a/-o pattern

Phi uses a consistent vowel pattern:

-a endings open (mena, wela, shola, rena)
-o endings close (meno, welo, sholo)

Learn once, apply everywhere.

ReferenceChecklist for correct sentences

Before finalizing an embedded clause:

[ ] Opener present (tha, pha, sha, or whu)
[ ] Closer present if required (tho, pho, sho)
[ ] Closer positioned correctly (after embedded verb, before main verb)
[ ] No closer after whu (noun closes it)
[ ] Embedded clause has complete structure (subject, verb)
[ ] Nesting order correct (closers match openers in reverse)
[ ] Correct complementizer type for meaning

ReferenceQuick phonetic reference

Word	IPA	A way to hear it
`tha`	/ˈθä/	teeth and breath, then a wide open jaw
`tho`	/ˈθo̞/	the same breath, rounded shut
`pha`	/ˈɸä/	air between the lips, deciding nothing
`pho`	/ˈɸo̞/	the lips closing back toward where they began
`sha`	/ˈʃä/	a hiss like speech through a wall
`sho`	/ˈʃo̞/	the borrowed words handed back
`whu`	/ˈʍu/	a small round breath with no door to close

The right column is a mnemonic, one speaker's way of hearing the family. The sounds carry no hidden meanings; the vowel alternation alone is systematic.

ReferenceGlossary

Closer: The second element of a complementizer pair that marks where embedded content ends. (tho, pho, sho)

Complementizer: A function word that introduces a subordinate clause, marking its type and relationship to the main clause.

Content reporting: Conveying the meaning of what someone said, with pronouns shifted to the reporter's perspective. Uses tha/tho.

Declarative: A statement; a clause that asserts something is true or false.

Embedded clause: A clause that functions inside another clause as the object of its verb.

Head noun: In a relative clause, the noun being modified by the clause.

Interrogative: A question; a clause that asks about uncertainty.

Nesting: Placing one embedded clause inside another.

Opener: The first element of a complementizer pair that marks where embedded content begins. (tha, pha, sha)

Quotative: Exact quotation; preserving someone's words verbatim. Uses sha/sho.

Relative clause: A clause that modifies a noun, describing it by what it does or experiences.

Relativizer: The word that introduces a relative clause. (whu)

SOV: Subject-Object-Verb word order, where the verb comes at the end of the clause.

ReferenceFurther study

Manual Part V, chapter 19 defines the complement frames and content-question embedding.
Manual chapter 20 and the relative clauses pamphlet give whu its full treatment.
Manual chapter 13 covers the pronouns and topic-drop used throughout these examples.
documents/grammar/complementizer_reference.md is the compact technical reference.
python3 scripts/validate_examples.py --paths pamphlets/complementizers --show-warnings checks every example in this pamphlet against the lexicon and the frame rules.